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Tetanus | tetany | Hypoparathyroidism | Hypocalcemia | Disorder of parathyroid gland | hypercalcaemia | hyperparathyroidism

[Disorder of parathyroid gland]- There are two types of parathyroid disorder- 1. Hypoparathyroidism 2. Hyperparathyroidism 1. Hypoparathyroidism ( Hypocalcemia) • Hypo secretion of PTH(parathormone), leads to decrease in blood calcium level. Causes of hypoparathyroidism- a. Parathyroidectomy Surgical removal of parathyroid gland b. Thyroidectomy During Surgival removal of thyroid gland , removal of parathyroid gland c. Pseudo hypoparathyroidism •  There is deficiency of receptors for parathormone (PTH) in target cells, • in this the secretion of PTH is normal or may be increased but hormone can not act on the target cells. d. Autoimmune disease >Effect of Hypoparathyroidism- • due to decrease in resorption of calcium from bones hypoparathyroidism leads to Hypocalcemia. • it causes neuromuscular hyperexcitability , resulting in hypocalcemic tetany. * Normally tetany occurs when plasma calcium level decreases below 6mg/dl. # normal plasma calcium lev...
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Stroke

Stroke- Presentation of stroke- Sudden onset focal deficit of cerebral function is the most common presentation. Alternative presentation include apparent confusion ( due to dysphasia or visualpatial impairment), seizures, declining level of consciousness or global loss of brain function and coma . If the symptoms last for >24 hrs ( or lead to death) and there is no apparent cause other than a vascular event,the diagnosis is most likely to be a stroke.if the symptoms last < 24 hrs and after adequate investigation, are presumed to be due to thrombosis or embolism, the diagnosis is a TIA.( Transient ischemic attack) CAUSE: Thrombosis or embolism causing cerebral infarction ( 80%) Primary inter cerebral haemorrhage (15%) Subarachnoid haemorrhage (5%) Cerebral venous thrombosis (1%) RISK FACTOR: GLOBAL Increasing age Hypertension Diabetes Family history Dyslipidemia Homocysteinaemia LIFESTYLE Drug abuse Smoking O...
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Liver | bile

 Liver and biliary system Liver is a dual organ having both secretory and excretory functions. It is the largest gland in the body, weighing about 1.5 kg in man. It is located in the upper and right side of the abdominal cavity, immediately beneath diaphragm.  LIVER Hepatic Lobes Liver is made up of many lobes called hepatic lobes. Each lobe consists of many lobules called hepatic lobules. Hepatic Lobules Hepatic lobule is the structural and functional unit of liver. There are about 50,000 to 100,000 lobules in the liver. The lobule is a honeycomb-like structure and it is made up of liver cells called hepatocytes. Hepatocytes and Hepatic Plates  Hepatocytes are arranged in columns, which form the hepatic plates. Each plate is made up of two columns of cells. In between the two columns of each plate lies a bile canaliculi. In between the neighboring plates, a blood space called sinusoid is present. Sinusoid is lined by the endothelial cells. In between...
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